''Sponge culture 



^ 



From BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Volume XXVIII, 1908 
Proceedings of the Fourth International Fisliery Congress : Washington, igoS 




^-._^ WA.SHINGTON :;.;:: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ::;:;; 1910 




Qass O Af 3^ 

Book Cs 



SPONGE CULTURE 



From BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES, Volume XXVIII, 1908 

Proceedings of tlic Fourlli Iiitirnational Fishery Congress : : WashingUm, igo8 




WASHINGTON 



GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 



1910 



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* 



BUREAU OF nSHERIES DOCUMENT NO. 670 
Issued April, 1910 



APR 15 1910 



SPONGE CULTURE 

By Jules Cotte 
Adjunct Professor at the School oj Medicine and Pharmacy, Marseille, France 



Paper presented before the Fourth International Fishery Congress 
held at Washington, U. S, A., September 22 to 26, 1908 



587 



CO N TE N TS. 

J* 

Page. 

Definition of sponge culture 589 

General considerations 590 

Culture of sponges by sowing 594 

Sponge culture by parcage 598 

Sponge culture by means of collectors for larvse 599 

Sponge culture by means of cuttings « 604 

Conclusion 613 

Bibliography 613 



SPONGE CULTURE. 



By JULES COTTE, 
Adjunct Professor at the School oj Medicine and Pharmacy, Marseille, France. 



[Translated from the French.] 

One of the greatest glories of the nineteenth century undoubtedly will be 
its patient, persevering, and methodical exploitation of nature's resources. It 
must be acknowledged, however, that not everything has as yet been obtained 
from the sea that may well be expected. Great progress may be looked for in 
the propagation of useful species inhabiting its depths, although in this field of 
work, by its excessive mobility, the limits of exploited areas must be determined 
in a very arbitrary way. 

Great anxiety has prevailed for a long time among those interested in the 
sponge fishing and sponge trade because of the improvidence with which the 
sponge grounds were being worked. It has been the most productive methods 
of fishing that were being sought, without any thought of the morrow. It is 
important to combat these unfortunate tendencies, and several procedures, of 
which each has many partisans, have been presented: One is the regulation of 
the number of fishing appliances (for example, the limitation of the number of 
divers, as in Tunis) ; another, the complete prohibition of certain means (the 
prohibition of divers, as temporarily promulgated in Tunis and elsewhere); 
another, the fixing of a minimum size for the sponges taken; another, apply- 
ing to the fishing of sponges the principle of regulated cutting, with alterna- 
tion of rest and fishing for each of the banks visited by the fishermen; the tem- 
porary prohibition of fishing (several months a year) in order to allow the larvae 
to leave the sponges and to take root ; and, lastly, the propagation of sponges 
by methods of culture. 

DEFINITION OF SPONGE CULTURE. 

The term " sponge cuhure " must be understood in the widest sense possible. 
It comprises all the methods which man may adopt in order to obtain under his 
direct supervision or by his intervention an increase in the output of commercial 
sponges from any given locality. It would be sponge culture to carry sponges 

589 



590 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

from one locality to another, either to increase the number of individuals in an 
already sponge-bearing region, to improve their production, or to make a barren 
region yield. It would be sponge culture to take young sponges from a natural 
bed and transplant them to a given area of the sea, a pare, where they might 
acquire a good commercial size under the supervision of a caretaker. It would 
be sponge culture to gather sponge larvae on appropriate collectors and rear them 
in a suitable place. It would be sponge culture to break a sponge in several 
pieces and develop separately the individual cuttings. 

It is thus possible for us to conceive various methods of sponge culture, each 
of which merits individual study, for we feel more or less strongly the lack of 
knowledge concerning the physiology of the sponge species when we take up the 
different methods. We shall call the first method sponge culture by sowing, 
the second sponge culture by parcage, then sponge culture by means of col- 
lectors, and lastly sponge culture by cuttings. 

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

The first question to be considered, as it belongs to all the methods, con- 
cerns the choice of the locality in which sponge culture is to be attempted. As 
a general rule, it is necessary to provide surroundings identical with those in 
which sponges naturally live as regards the depth and the quality of the water. 
It is, consequently, unnecessary to insist on the fact that the salinity of the 
water must be similar to that in which the sponges prefer to propagate; for 
example, care should be taken not to repeat the error of Lamiral, who 
attempted to introduce sponges from the Levant into the brackish ponds of 
the Mediterranean Sea. 

Delage said that the sponges of commerce require somewhat rough water, 
which keeps in suspension the grains of sand, the remnants of Foraminijera, and 
the spicules of sponges which accumulate in the primary fibers of their skeletons. 
This, however, is an exact theoretical consideration which may be entirely over- 
looked in practice. The entire volume of mineral debris which a toilet sponge 
keeps inclosed in its spongeous sheath is never very large; it does not exist 
near the coasts where sponge culture is possible; there are probably few locali- 
ties far from the coast where the purity of water is so great that sponges might 
suffer from a want of material for the formation of their skeletons. 

The authors reporting experiments in sponge culture almost all agree on 
one point, i. e., that the results of these experiments are always remarkable 
when made in waters where there exists a certain current. Buccich and 
O. Schmidt ° advise localities but little exposed to waves coming in from the open 
sea, the bottom lined with highly colored algse, and a certain current present. 



In Marenzeller. 



SPONGE CULTURE. 59 I 

Fogarty" has observed that the presence of a moderate current is most useful. 
These results are evidently explained by the simple fact, known to all, that the 
waters of a current are better aerated and contain a richer fauna. In such 
places, consequently, a more abundant supply of nourishment is available and 
from it the bottom animals, like the sponges, profit more or less directly. It 
may be easily understood that the presence of a certain current improves the 
conditions of the surroundings in which the sponges grow and facihtates thus 
the success of experiments in sponge culture. However, too swift currents 
should be avoided. The aim of sponge culture is the furnishing of skeletons of 
sponges easy to sell, hence we must not forget that the sponges grown in very 
agitated waters have a coarse skeleton and that this diminishes their commercial 
value. This observation was made a long time ago; Aristotle says that sponges 
differ according to their place of growth, "the ones by their softness and the 
others by their coarseness," and he thus explains this fact: "The softest sponges 
are those which come from deep, always quiet, waters." Similar observations 
have been made by modern fishers of sponges,* and the reason is easily found. 
We meet here one of the applications of the principle of Lamarck concerning 
adaptation to surroundings. The role of the spongeous skeleton of a Euspongia 
or a Hippospongia is to insure a relative rigidity to the body of the animal; it 
is quite natural that there should be established a certain automatic balance 
between the firmness of the skeleton and the shocks or pressure which the sponge 
has to bear. This is a hypothesis which Keller " has very well elucidated. It 
might not be quite wise to accept all the deductions he made from it, but the 
primary idea of his work seems to me perfectly correct. We can not as yet prop- 
erly orient the phylogenic tree of the spongeous species. In certain kinds the 
spongeous matter is doubtless in part an ancestral persistence ; in others it may 
have been acquired more recently, and we have no means of distinguishing be- 
tween these two species. Hence, the ideas of Keller should not be discredited, 
because species generally inhabiting relatively deep and calm waters are pro- 
vided with rather firm spongeous skeletons. 

It would be interesting to know, also, without departing from this question, 
whether the individuals developed in agitated waters owe the firmness of their 
skeleton to a difference in the nature of their spongeous matter (greater impreg- 
nation of salts, for example, different physical condition, etc.) to a greater 
quantity of solid particles in their primary fibers, to a greater thickness of 
these fibers, or to a lesser flexibility of secondary fibers. We know that Len- 

"^In Rathbun. 

6 See observations of M. Crozat, made on the coasts of Provence, in: L' Industrie des pfches aux 
Colonies, by Darboux, Stephan, Cotte, and Van Gaver, p. 220, vol. i. 

« Zeitschrift fiir die wissenschaftliche Zoologie, vol. Lii, and Festschrift der Universitat ZUrich, 
Nageli and KoUiker, 1890-91. 



592 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

denfled has shown us the role played in the suppleness of sponges by the flexi- 
bility of their secondary fibers; it would be necessary to determine whether 
this flexibility is closely dependent upon the conditions of the surroundings 
and whether it is immediately modified by the latter, beginning with the first 
generation of cultivated sponges. 

A detail which the cultivators of sponges must not lose sight of is the very 
great care with which the sponges should be manipulated. They thrive well 
only in rvmning water, and the aquarium of a laboratory is not a favorable 
place for their development, unless the water be constantly renewed. More- 
over, they very quickly die out of water, especially in summer. We do not 
find any commercial sponges in shallow areas not covered by water at low tide, 
which is a fact to be taken into account. Preference should be given, conse- 
quently, as far as possible, to methods of work in which the sponges shall not be 
taken out of their natural element, or in which they shall be taken out for the 
shortest period possible. We find in bibliography some information on the 
duration of sojourn in the air compatible with the submerged life and the 
normal development of individuals experimented with. Allemand has made 
numerous experiments on this point. He has found that sponges left ten hours 
in the shade (at i2° to 14° C.) may revive and continue to grow. 

It might be said that, on the whole, experiments in the culture of sponges so 
far have not been conducted by the method which ought to characterize scien- 
tific work; they have been mostly empirical and lacking the substratum of 
knowledge which preliminary research and observations would have furnished. 
It seems hardly credible that the partisans for and against sponge culture 
should have spent so much time in discussion, debating whether sponges propa- 
gated from cuttings develop more or less rapidly than those derived from larvae, 
without any research to ascertain the period of growth of a normal sponge. 
This is, nevertheless, the fundamental information, the key to all undertakings 
in sponge culture, which requires a fixed capital in order to withstand the 
fluctuations in market prices. If a sponge needs ten years to acquire an 
adequate size, or if ten months are sufficient for this, sponge culture has to be 
abandoned a priori, or deserves to be studied. Investigation as to the rapidity 
of growth of sponges derived from larvae is the first thing to be done before 
sponge culture can be considered, and this research ought to be conducted 
methodically in each sponge-bearing country and for each of the species utilized. 
It is not possible to maintain that Hippospongia equina elastica develops in 
various countries with exactly equal rapidity, nor can it be said any more 
justly that the rate of its growth may be compared to that of the American 
sheepswool. Each variety may have its particular rate of development; we 
have already seen that in regions where there is a certain current the cuttings 



SPONGE CULTURE. 593 

of sponges grow more rapidly. It is consequently impossible to establish any 
general rule, and definite conclusions may be arrived at only after numerous 
observations. Yet, scientific observations in this line are not numerous and 
can not be superposed; infrequent endeavors have been made to throw some 
light on the legends current in this question. 

We know nothing precise . in regard to the most highly prized variety, 
Euspongia officinalis mollissima. Masse says that at Rhodes it reaches an 
average size within three to four years. As to Hippospongia equina elaslica, 
Servonnet and Laffitte fix upon a few months, according to the statements of 
fishermen, as being the time necessary for this sponge to obtain commercial size 
in the Gulf of Gabesa. This idea continues to be applied to the Sfaxian region, 
where Servonnet and Laffitte have gleaned part of their information. The 
fishermen and the merchants of sponges determine the age of individuals (one, 
two, three years) by the dimensions. Bouchon-Brandely and Berthoule report 
that in the month of June a diver had observed carefully on a rock in the envi- 
rons of Benghazi the existence of 57 very young sponges, lately out of their 
larval stage ; the following year he dived at the same place and found the same 
sponges still alive, their number being almost the same, but their diameter 
about ID centimeters. This observation deserves attention, as it has been 
confirmed by researches made by Allemand. This author has noticed that for 
Hippospongia equina elastica a bout t wo years, beginning with the time when 
the larvae gets fixed, were required for the circumference to reach 30 to 40 
centimeters. 

The researches made in the laboratory of Sfax were more successful than 
those made by the Administration des Travaux Publics of Tunis. The latter 
had three pares constructed in March, 1897, at Sfax, at Kerkennah, and at Djerba, 
and sponges were carried there with all desirable precautions. The sponges had 
not increased in size by September, and they were invaded by algse, which shows 
to what an extent their vitality had been weakened. Experiments were made 
with still less success, as may be easily understood, with sponges brought to 
Tunis in August, 1898, and held in glass jars. At Kerkennah eight living 
sponges were isolated under water by means of metallic gratings; development 
in size was noticed throughout the months of October, November, and Decem- 
ber, but ceased later on. 

The American species grow very rapidly, if we are to believe the accounts. 
The velvet acquires a commercial size in one year, and the sheepswool and the 
glove are said to grow faster still. Sawyer fixes " at ten months the time necessary 
for a sheepswool to weigh 45 grains. At Nassau the time is fixed at four months, 

" In Brice. 
n. n. F. 1908—38 



594 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

and even three months " (Nye) is given for the same variety ; for Arapian '' 
this period varies according to locaHties, from four to six months. If this infor- 
mation is correct, which even Bidder doubts, it is easy to understand the opti- 
mism of the fishermen who do not fear any serious decrease of weahh of growth ; 
it would seem, however, that if the impoverishment does not take place so 
rapidly in all sponge-bearing countries it yet threatens them all, for in none of 
the commercial species is development so extremely rapid as might be expected 
from some of the opinions I have mentioned here. 

CULTURE OF SPONGES BY PLANTING. 

It was by planting that the culture of sponges was first undertaken by Lami- 
ral. Being one of the members of the Societe dWcclimatation, he prevailed upon 
the latter to intrust him with the mission of transplanting to the western coast 
of the Mediterranean Sea Euspongia officinalis mollissima, which inhabits the 
eastern region of this sea. The knowledge of Lamiral concerning the biology 
of sponges was elementary, and among the localities in which he proposed to 
introduce them were, as I have already mentioned, brackish ponds along the 
shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The Societe d'Acclimatation had intrusted 
the study of the propositions of Lamiral to a commission, the reporter of which 
was Loubeiran. The report was very sensible and contained excellent advice 
as to the conduct of such work. The brackish ponds were to be abandoned, and 
advice was given in favor of localities along the shores of Africa. Lamiral had 
been given a sum of 5,000 francs, of which 1,000 francs were donated by the 
governor-general of Algeria, Marshal Pelissier. 

Lamiral neglected one of the most important precautions indicated in the 
report of Loubeiran. Instead of keeping the boxes containing sponges sub- 
merged in the sea, he disposed them on the deck of the steamer. The water 
was changed, it is true. The period of transportation was likewise badly 
selected — in June the temperature is much too high. Attempts were made 
with ice to cool the water flowing on the sponges, but the effect of these adverse 
conditions did not fail to show. Tank water is alive with bacteria; Lamiral 
thinks that they are sexual products: 

The water flows out of the tanks, leaving on deck a fatty and white substance 
which must be the substance of the larvae * * '■■'. The difference in temperature of 
the water in the tanks has advanced the period of swarming of the sponges. They are 
ill from the parturition excited before its time. 

Arrived on the coast of France the sponges were placed in cement boxes 

and deposited in th« roadstead of Toulon, at Bandcl, at Pomegues, and at Port- 

o Cited by Thomas Lee in Report on the work of the U. S. Fish Commission steamer Albatross, by 
Z. L. Tanner. Report U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, i8S6 (i88g). 
b In Brice. 



SPONGE CULTURE. 595 

Cros. Those placed at the latter point had traveled a whole month ; it may 
be easily imderstood in what condition they were. At the end of the same 
year, the sponges in the roadstead of Toulon were said to be still living and 
even to have increased in number ( ?) . But at the close of the following year 
nothing remained of them anywhere. Such was the end of the enterprise. 
The transplantation of these 123 sponges from Syria cost 4,993.20 francs. 

Lamiral later organized at Marseille a committee of aquiculture, which 
had only a few meetings and did not have the time to produce any useful work. 
The culture of sponges was on its program, but no attempt in this direction 
was made. 

General Garibaldi" had thought at Caprera to make an experiment similar 
to that of Lamiral. In vain have I endeavored to obtain information as to 
whether Garibaldi's project was put into execution. It is more than probable 
that no attempt was made. 

The projects of Espina, French consul at Sousse,* who wished to attempt 
dissemination of sponges on the coasts of Algeria, were not brought into effect, 
neither were those of Salse and Deel,'' members of the Societe d'Acclimatation 
of Nice, who proposed to transplant sponges from Syria to the shores of the 
island of Ste. Marguerite. 

In 1896, at the request of the Colonial Office of Great Britain, Bidder 
indicated his opinion as to the mode of proceeding in experiments of this kind. 
He advised placing stones bearing the sponges in wooden cars with lateral aper- 
tures and having pointed extremities; these cars were to be towed in the rear 
of steamers, barely floating and letting the water flow through, which would 
be useful in case of an accident. But Bidder did not deem this experiment 
advisable; it would be "an experiment in the dark." He concurred in the 
opinion of Hyatt that the American sponges were simply varieties of the Euro- 
pean species, produced under the action of a higher temperature and of coral 
sands; sponges introduced from the Mediterranean Sea to the Bahamas would 
probably undergo the same adaptations, and would thus become identical with 
the native varieties. 

Lendenfeld does not admit, and not without reason, such plasticity in the 
sponge family, but he does not believe any more than Bidder in the success of 
attempts to transplant sponges long distances; he holds as a principle that 
transplanted sponges are less suited to their surroundings than the native ones 
and consequently not so well fitted for the struggle, a fact which will cause 
them to disappear in time. Expressed in such a form, this conclusion is some- 

" Bulletin de la Soci^tiS d'Acclimatation, vol. viii, 1861. 

6 Ibid., vol, X, 1863. 

c Ibid., 2ds., vol. i, 1864. 



596 BULIvETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

what too arbitrary. The density of the population of sponges on the banks 
is not so great that new individuals might not live in unoccupied spaces. It 
seems that the deterioration and degeneration of imported species is more 
to be feared than their entire disappearance, if the choice of the varieties and 
of the localities destined to receive them be made with sufficient care. 

All this obviously pertains to transportation at long distances. There 
should be no hesitation whatever where short distances are concerned. All 
naturalists know that such transplantation is possible and, taken all in all, 
quite easy. All those who have attempted it have succeeded, no matter what 
species of the sponge family was experimented with, and experiments have 
several times been made with the commercial varieties. As to the Hippo- 
spongia equina elastica, AUemand transported in April and May, 1906, 67 
sponges obtained at Sfax, which he immersed and made to live in the Lake of 
Tunis; on June 15 of the same year 44 remained alive, some of them, however, 
in a rather bad condition. 

There is a reason for asking whether the culture of sponges from seed is 
worth the effort. It may answer two purposes — that of introducing sponges 
and estabhshing fishing grounds in regions naturally without this industry, or 
that of improving the production of a region having sponges of inferior quahty 
by renewing the varieties existing there. Whatever the object in view, it is 
necessary to make the attempt with the greatest possible number of individuals 
and to be content to wait for results in a distant future. For the dissemina- 
tion of the introduced varieties, we must depend upon the swarming of the 
larvae around the centers of dispersion formed by the transplanted individuals, 
and it is only after a sufficiently long time that a group of these individuals 
may be seen to form an oily spot around the place where they were deposited. 
It is, consequently, an undertaking demanding much time and much money; 
we can not expect private persons to risk the undertaking for the purpose of 
profit; only powerful organizations can afford to take the initiative in this 
matter. 

The rapidity with which the diffusion of the acclimated colonj^ occurs 
depends upon a large number of factors. Account should be taken of the 
strength of the current at the given point to carry the lar\^ae along and, more- 
over, of the active movement of the larvae themselves. We know very little 
concerning this latter question, however. I do not think that much has been 
learned as to the rapidity of movement of larvse of the utilized species. I 
have, however, demonstrated that in the monaxid Reniera simulans the larvae 
move at an average rapidity of o.io meter per minute. Under the combined 
action of the beatings of their lashes and the force of the current, the larvae of 
sponges may make quite long distances, though these distances in actuality 



SPONGE CULTURE. 597 

seem to be rather limited. On the one hand, the movement of larvae does not 
occur constantly in a clearly determined direction, but in a most irregular 
zigzag. On the other hand, the larvae pass but a short time in a free condition, 
not over a few hours; hence they generally are fixed near their parent. Con- 
sequently the extension of transplanted colonies takes place very slowly. On 
the exploited points off the coast of Tunis obser\'ation showed that the maxi- 
mum density of groups of sponges varies each year in a direction determined 
by the currents and the tide, but that the area of these displacements is not 
extensive. 

If it is desired to sow sponges in an almost barren region or in a region 
situated a short distance from cultivable banks, it is necessary to ascertain that 
there are no special conditions adverse to a spontaneous growth on these bot- 
toms which might interfere with the success of the proposed attempt. Let us 
take as an example the coast of Provence °: There may be found the Hippo- 
spongia equina elastica and the Euspongia officinalis lamella, but the individuals 
are not numerous in general, so few in fact that their presence was for a long 
time unperceived. Shall these be considered as the scarce descendants of 
former colonies which have disappeared almost entirely? It is certain that 
these sponges have a difficult struggle against unfavorable external conditions, 
and it would not be logical at the present stage of our knowledge to bring here 
at large expense the same varieties of sponges as the native ones in an attempt 
to disseminate them where sponges a long time acclimated show so little vitality. 

AUemand noticed that the bottoms of the cantonment in the vicinity of 
the laboratory of Sfax are not everywhere favorable to the life of the sponges. 
In one part of the bottom " invaded by light yellow algae, which probably harmed 
the sponges," all the individuals planted there perished. This is one more 
proof of what I assert, i. e., that the biological study of sponges is as yet not 
sufficiently advanced for the success of an undertaking in sponge culture to be 
determined in advance. 

In short, sponge culture by seed may be compared to the replanting of 
forests on mountains by setting out a certain number of adult trees, the 
fate of the enterprise resting solely on the spontaneous dissemination of seeds 
from the latter. The results obtained might be excellent in some cases, while 
in others only failures would be registered. The seeds of the transplanted 
specimens might be inferior in the struggle for existence as compared to the 
neighboring specimens of vegetation; herds of cattle, if they were allowed, 
might destroy a quantity of young plants, and, similarly, the larvae of sponges 
might in certain places be pursued by active enemies. Lastly, imagine the 

o See J. Cotte: La pfeche des Sponges en Provence, Comptes rendus des Societ^s savantes de 
Provence. Marseille, 1906. 



598 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

disappointment awaiting the sylviculturist who should attempt to grow chest- 
nut trees on soil permeated with lime. Compared to our knowledge of sylvi- 
culture, our knowledge of sponge culture is most uncertain, and it is therefore 
difficult to foresee the future of sponge culture from seed. There arises in this 
instance the question of species; each individual case ought to be studied 
separately and only one general rule may here be given — that recommending 
the greatest prudence. 

SPONGE CULTURE BY PARCAGE. 

This method might give more immediate results than the former. Under- 
taken by a private individual in a limited and well-defined area of the sea, it 
would consist in preserving sponges of small dimensions, brought up in fishing, 
by placing them in favorable localities, whence they would be taken out at the 
desired time to be prepared and sold. The fisherman would not neglect the 
small specimens, the skeleton of which can be sold only at a loss. If the legis- 
lation of his country is wisely protective, if it forbids the fishing, sale, and 
exportation of small sponges, the fisherman will preserve them in pares, awaiting 
the time when they will be sufficiently developed. 

Such an enterprise is theoretically possible, but this does not mean that it 
would be remunerative. Sponges which it is desired to preserve must be 
gathered and transported with the greatest precautions, for which there are no 
facilities in practical fishing and which would render the latter quite expensive. 
In spite of the greatest care individual sponges would suffer fatally; the death 
of some would be unavoidable and the survival of the others would demand a 
certain period of time to recuperate and regain their former health before 
growing. "A fixed fragment, or an entire sponge transplanted and fixed like a 
fragment, will exhibit a rapidity of development much inferior to sponges coming 
up spontaneously." Such is the opinion of a convinced sponge culturist, 
Allemand. 

The installation of a pare would probably be subjected to an annual tax 
which we might suppose to be quite negligible ; but expenditures of maintenance 
would not be at all negUgible. Sponges are a commodity which it is very easy 
to steal, and it would be necessary not only to supervise the pare but even to 
inclose it. It has been observed that sponges do not develop so rapidly when 
they are subjected to too much thinning. This was noticed by O. Schmidt and 
Buccich in regard to Euspongia officinalis adriatica, and it was likewise 
observed by Allemand in regard to Hippospongia equina elastica. Sponges 
can not, consequently, be kept in very shallow water ; the inclosing of the pare 
would then be very expensive if it were done with a wall ; it would be necessary 
to content one's self with determining the boundaries by means of floating beams. 



SPONGE CULTURE. 599 

However it might be eiTected, this expense would have to be added to that 
involved in taking up the sponges with which to stock the pares. It remains 
to be seen whether these expenditures would be covered or exceeded by the 
profit from this enterprise. 

Everything depends upon the rapidity of growth of the sponges. We have 
already noticed the data obtained. In Tunis, for example, we may expect from 
what we have learned that specimens of Hippospongia equina elastica, too 
small to be sold immediately, may be placed in pares and would be ready for 
preparation beginning with the following year. Profit would be rapidly obtained 
from the difference in price for small sponges, which must be sold at a loss, and 
that of sponges of commercial size. It is difficult to calculate, however, whether 
this difference in price would counterbalance the expenditures involved. This 
is a question to be solved by experience alone. So far, we have the right to 
have a limited confidence in the future of this method of culture, but not to 
believe in its importance, since it seems that it can never be adopted on a very 
large scale. 

SPONGE CULTURE BY MEANS OF COLLECTORS FOR LARV/E. 

This method, which might be considered as the most perfect theoretically, 
consists of parcage, not of the small sponges obtained by difficult and very 
expensive fishing, but very young sponges, fixed on adequate collectors. This 
method was neglected by most of the experimentors in spite of the advantages 
which it presents theoretically ; this comes from the fact that the authors hesitated 
to undertake observ^ations on larvte of sponges, the average length of which is 
of about half a millimeter. 

Ralph M. Monroe," after having stated the results obtained by sponge 
culture by cuttings, says: 

It is quite possible that with state protection to the planters, and better methods 
to be determined upon by further experiments, sponge culture might be quite profitable. 
Mv belief is, gained in oyster culture from spawn, that a similar method with sponges 
will eventually prove the correct one, but until more is known of sponge biology it 
would be useless to suggest methods, notwithstanding the fact that several points in 
connection with it have been to my mind quite clearly demonstrated.'' 

In "LTndustrie des Peehes aux Colonies" we read: 

The desired aim might be more easily reached, perhaps, in operating on methods 
similar to oyster culture and clam culture, by receiving on suitable collectors the larvae 
given out by sexually mature sponges in closed spaces. * * * It should not be 
forgotten, however, that it would be a very difficult attempt. 

H. V. Wilson has studied the reproduction of sponges "by means of eggs, by means of the gem- 
mules, and by cuttings." (Report Commission of Fish and Fisheries 1889-91 (1893).) Wilson's works 
have been published, but he is not engaged in sponge culture. 

6 In Allen. 1896a. 



6oO BUCIyETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

Allemand announces practical experiments in this matter. The informa- 
tion published by him on this subject is, however, quite elementary: 

A larva, fixed to a support which we afterwards immersed in flowing water in 
May, 1905, has developed this summer, but gave in September only a large spot with 
an oscule, not a completely formed sponge; this fact ought to be ascribed to the manipu- 
lations necessary in the transportation of the larva. 

Evidently we can not deduce anything from this solitary failure. 

In view of the absence of positively established facts, we are forced to study 
this method in a purely theoretical manner. The choice of the collectors deserv^es 
first consideration. Breeding effected in aquaria shows that collectors of various 
kinds may be utilized for the larvae of sponges, and we know that such is the 
case in nature, the larvse of commercial species attaching themselves to plants 
(branches of Posidonias) as well as to shells and stones. It should not be for- 
gotten, on the other hand, that these collectors must be easy to manipulate and 
very inexpensive. We need not expect such a number of sponges to attach to 
these collectors as might be observed on oyster collectors. Are there not found 
in Arcachon over 300 young ones on one tile? After the young sponges are 
attached they should be preserved, and we know that they must adhere to a 
support. If small stones or shells have been utilized as collectors this support 
will not be of a sufficient size to be considered permanent, and it will have, in 
its turn, to be attached to another support. Should tiles be used? Tiles 
would be durable, as there could be no question of disintegration, but the use 
of tiles would be expensive. It seems that a good collector might consist of 
wooden branches tied in fagots and immersed in the vicinity of sponges that 
have attained their sexual maturity. The branches possess great resistance 
to sea water, and by using them, as is being done in Italy in deep-water 
oyster culture, it would be possible to divide them and to tie them to ropes 
or to apparatus similar to that used for sponge culture by means of cuttings. 

The use of fagots presents another advantage. It is generally admitted 
that the larvae of sponges possess a marked negative phototropism. My 
observations, made on Reniera simulans, do not concur with those of other 
authors in this respect, and I fotmd, on the whole, that the larvae of this 
species are quite indifferent to light. Allemand has stated that the larvae of 
a commercial species, Hippospongia equina elastica, seek a feeble hght. It 
is certain that a negative tropism theoretically may be very useful to the species 
by impeding the larvae from rising to the surface and by making them descend 
to less lighted regions, i. e., to the bottom, where they may find supports in 
great numbers; the opinion of a sponge diver would be quite useful, and it 
would be wise to ask him whether young sponges are not often attached above 
their mother to vertical walls of rocks. Should there really exist a negative 
phototropism the fagots would present the advantage of offering in their lower 



SPONGE CULTURE. 6oi 

region a zone of lesser light, where a greater number of larvae would attach them- 
selves; these would be attracted at this point less imperiously by the darkness 
of the bottom. 

Supports for young sponges would be attached with advantage to bodies 
which the waves might put in motion — ropes treated so as to resist putrefac- 
tion, etc. Bidder luckily demonstrated the advantage derived by sponges 
living on mobile supports. Thanks to the renewing of food and aerated water, 
a consequence of their oscillations, the rapidity of growth of young sponges is 
increased. It should not be lost from view that in such cases the skeleton is 
coarser, as stated by several authors; the advantage gained on the one hand 
is decreased by the diminution in value of the product obtained. 

The sponge cutting should be ipimersed at a certain depth, and it seems 
rational from this point of view to choose the depth preferred by the spontaneously 
grown sponges of the species it is desired to cultivate. Experimenters have 
noticed that sponge cuttings seem to fear too intense a light; this is a thing to 
be remembered and may find its application. 

Sponge culture appears to us then as an operation fraught with difficulties, 
which can be attempted, without involving too high expenditure, only in 
localities offering an exceptional combination of favorable conditions. It 
should not be forgotten that if the sponges are to be immersed at a sufficient 
depth they must be attached so firmly that a wave shock can not detach them. 
They should also be protected against marauders, and the question of guarding 
the pares and inclosing these arises again in connection with the expenditure 
involved. 

It is possible to attempt the combination of this method of sponge culture 
with that undertaken in pares by placing the collectors in the pares themselves 
where the adult sponges are kept. There would thus be no interruption in the 
future gathering of sponges, since those maintained in the pares would furnish 
the larvae before being garnered , and the young sponges attached to the collectors 
would be taken care of until the time when, in their turn, they would emit 
larvae and reach the necessary size. 

It is to be regretted that this method has not been the object of serious 
study and has been neglected by the cultivators of sponges." In the mean- 
while we are reduced to simple hypotheses where it is concerned, and it is 
impossible to know whether it is indeed a practical method for purposes of 
profit. It might be possible that, at the present state of our knowledge, such 
an operation would not pay nor cover not only the expenditures involved by 

a It will shortly be attempted along the French coast of the Mediterranean. I have been asked 
for information on this subject. Without concealing my skepticism from my interviewer, I told him 
that sponge culture by collectors alone or combined with parcage was the only method worth attempting. 



602 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

the concession, the construction of pares, the guarding mentioned above, but 
even the cost of manipulation of collectors and larv^ attached to these. Expe- 
rience shows, in fact, that even on the richest of banks sponges grow at con- 
siderable distances the one from the other; this fact shows us that a great 
number of larvse are lost to reproduction, as the sponges emit larvae in 
considerable numbers, and if the majority of these came out victorious from 
their struggle for existence we might see among the sponges themselves intense 
vital competition. Such is not the case. Are the larv^se destroyed because 
only few of them find a favorable spot to which they may attach themselves ; 
are few of them capable of living ; or is their greater number the prey of their 
enemies? Let us study these three hypotheses separately. 

In regard to the first, it must be observed that the larvse possess very 
imperfect means for the seeking of a support; the}' have no organ of direction. 
When sponge larvse are kept in a glass jar their fixing is retarded because glass 
is not a very suitable support; it is accelerated by placing in the jar solid objects 
to which the larvse attach themselves readily, as fragments of shells, or even 
by covering the interior of the jar with a coating of collodion." At the moment 
of the physiological crisis, which acts so radically on their anatomical structure, 
it seems that each larva which does not meet a solid body to which it might 
cling is destined to perish ; it must attach itself or die. Do we not see at times, 
in our laboratories, sponge larvae spread useless on the surface of the water of 
the jars against the upper layer as they would do against a solid body? If 
our hypothesis is well founded it seems to us that collectors with a large surface, 
disposed around the sponges, would save a great number of larvse which in 
their normal course would not meet any bodies to which they could attach. 

We know nothing at all of any of the enemies of the sponge larvae. Among 
animals widely utilized by man the sponges are perhaps those the ethology of 
whose larvse is least known. We know that adult sponges are respected, 
ordinarily, by almost all marine animals; I saw accidentally, in an aquarium, 
blennies attack Suberites domuncula and serranids come and bite the parts 
wounded by the blennies. But these are exceptional cases. The immunity 
may be due to the great amount of organic ammonia contained by the sponges. 
How far are their larvae left unmolested by other animals? This we do not 
know at all. We see that on bottoms of geological structure and flora identical 
in appearance there are banks rich in sponges separated by zones almost com- 
pletely barren. We have every reason to seek to know why the distribution 
of these sedentary animals is so unequal, and we must observe that the inter- 
relations of animals have not been sufficiently studied from this point of view. 

a I have made this observation quite frequently. This question of the nature of supports offered 
to the larvse is of the greatest itnportance to sponge culture. 



SPONGE CULTURE. 603 

This is a question of the greatest importance; if we knew that some animal 
species were greedy for sponge larvae the presence of these species at given points 
would be a warning against the choice of such localities for sponge culture. 
Such a series of experiments, easily conducted and absolutely necessary, 
should be made as a preliminary by those who wish to encourage capital to 
take an interest in sponge culture. I intend to publish in the near future 
the results of research of this character. 

We are completely ignorant of the reasons why in nature the number of 
larvae that survive transformation is so very greatly limited. It is probable that 
there is a frequent combination of the two reasons on which I have insisted and 
that a certain number of larvae after having escaped the attacks of active enemies 
succumb later because they fail to find suitable support at the moment when 
the transformation must occur. 

We are obliged to consider these questions and to revert to them insist- 
ently, for experiments in sponge culture by cuttings the results of which are 
known to us seem to discourage us entirely from attempting sponge culture by 
means of collectors. The authors who made them mention but very superficially 
the attachment of sponges derived from larvae on their apparatus. It seems, 
however, that a maximum of favorable conditions was combined there. A 
considerable number of sponges was assembled at a given point constituting a 
kind of pare; the apparatus of sponge culture consisted of collectors, and yet 
these collectors gathered almost nothing. Shall it be assumed that the sponges 
held in the pares to be divided into sections had scarcely ever any mature larvae 
or larvae capable of living? This might be possible, although somewhat strange. 
Do cuttings habitually fail to reach sexual maturity under cultivation? Such a 
conclusion would annihilate certain hopes of sponge culture which shall be 
mentioned later. Shall it be admitted that the larvae were emitted and that 
they died in the pares? This would be a very grave deduction for the future of 
sponge culture by means of collectors if we did not observe that sponge cultiva- 
tors have generally made their experiments by immersing the cuttings at a very 
slight depth. 

However this may be, it will be noticed that there remain many obscure 
points by the solution of which alone can we foresee the chances of success of 
sponge culture by means of collectors. We may appraise the amount of capital 
needed for a venture of this kind, but it is absolutely impossible to know how 
many sponges may be garnered and, consequently, to what extent the capital 
engaged might be remunerated. From a purely theoretical point of view, 
sponge culture by means of collectors seems to us the ideal method, as being the 
most rational of* all; but, on the other hand, it is the one which possesses the 
least number of scientific data. It would be lack of conscience to advise at pres- 



604 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

ent the owners of capital to take a rush into the unknown by embarking on a 
venture of this kind before patient investigations had thrown some scientific 
light on the principal obscure points. 

SPONGE CULTURE BY MEANS OF CUTTINGS. 

This is the only method of sponge culture on which we possess any precise 
information, as this is the only one which has been seriously experimented with. 
In early antiquity observations were made on the facility with which sponges 
coiild regenerate. Aristotle affiirms that "when a sponge is torn off it may be 
regenerated from the fragment left and become complete." The fishermen of 
the Mediterranean Sea continue to believe this. Hennique says that four 
years are necessary for a torn-off sponge to regain a good size. Masse likewise 
believes that the root of torn-ofi' sponges grows up again, and he supposes also 
that the skeleton of the new sponge is less fine than that which it succeeds. 
This latter opinion can not be accepted without being tested, for it seems that 
if it were true the commercial varieties of sponges would have degenerated long 
since. 

The first really scientific observations on the regeneration of sponges are 
due to Cavolini. This author demonstrated that a sponge which was detached 
from its support could adhere to a new support and continue to grow. Vaillant 
remarked that after isolating the cortex and the central part of Tethya lyncu- 
rium these two regions were susceptible of reproducing a complete individual; 
he also succeeded in grafting, the one on the other, two individuals of the same 
species. 

But O. Schmidt had already undertaken research in this Hue on Eus- 
pongia officinalis adriatica, the soft fine sponge of the Adriatic Sea. In "Die 
Spongien des Adriatischen Meeres " he announces his first attempts and com- 
plains of lack of capital. He was soon assisted as to the financial difficulty by 
the Deputation de la Bourse of Trieste; he met Hkewise in Buccich a valuable 
collaborator, thanks to whom he could continue at Socolizza, northeast of 
Lesina, a long series of experiments (1863-1872). The results obtained by 
Schmidt and Buccich were studied and commented upon in an excellent report 
by Marenzeller. 

O. Schmidt and Buccich observed that the best season for operation was 
winter, as during this time it was possible to manipulate the sponges in the 
open air and thus cause a minimum of injury to them; they may be kept several 
hours in the open air in winter, whereas their exposure in summer would be fatal 
after a few minutes' time. It was possible to secure the survival and develop- 
ment of fragments of sponges that had remained eight hours in the shade in 
February with a temperature of 7° Reaumur. On the other hand, the growth 
of the cuttings is slower in winter. 



SPONGE CULTURE. 605 

The sponges should be gathered by experienced men by means of the drag 
net rather than the hook. As soon as they are taken they are rid of their 
impaired parts, then fastened by wooden pegs, and, kept in water, towed astern 
of a boat. They are cut by means of a very fine saw into fragments measuring 
26 miUimeters longitudinally, and care is taken that each of the fragments 
retain as much as possible of the ectotome. It was observed in the experiments 
made at Lesina that if the sea remained calm for twenty-four hours fragments 
placed directly on the rocks adhered and were susceptible of further development. 
In practice it would be better to attach these fragments to suitable supports. 
Attempts of this character with wooden or metal pegs in cavities dug in flat 
stones or on the walls of wooden boxes did not give any favorable results. 
The greatest difficulty presented by metal pegs comes from their oxidation. 
Moreover, these first attempts were greatly interfered with because the supports 
became covered with sand and ooze. It may likewise be that the too intense 
action of light impeded the growth of the cuttings. 

The apparatus constructed by Buccich gave far better results. The frag- 
ments of sponges, 72 in number for each apparatus, were perforated with a 
trepanning instrument, then threaded on bamboo sticks between two parallel 
horizontal boards. The apparatus was weighted down with stones and could 
be raised for examination by means of a handle attached to the upper board. 
The fragments were thus disposed beyond all risk of being covered with ooze 
and without any impediment to the free circulation of water, while the upper 
board of the apparatus served as a screen against the rays of light. The silicate 
varnish of the bamboo also protected the sticks most effectually against the 
action of boring insects, but the latter entirely destroyed the boards in a num- 
ber of installations. 

The place chosen for these experiments was a bay in which a certain current 
was felt, but which was well sheltered against the waves, and where the algse at 
the bottom were highly colored. The operation may be considered as having 
succeeded when at the end of three to four weeks it is possible to ascertain that 
the cuttings have adhered to their supports. Beginning from this moment the 
growth is quite rapid ; the cuttings reach a double or treble size during the first 
year; the growth is more marked during the first and fourth (?) years than 
during the second and third. This result can but surprise, and it seems to show 
that the observations were made on a limited number of cuttings for the whole, 
and that the influence of some untoward accidents has falsified the results. 
But however this may be, the cuttings had reached quite a considerable size at 
the end of five years, and the experimenters were able to conclude that a com- 
mercial size could be attained within seven years, showing the method to be a 
practical one. 



6o6 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

A certain number of cuttings die, while others continue to Uve indefinitely 
without increasing in size; the materials of attachment deteriorate; but Schmidt 
and Buccich admit that in the hands of a careful operator not more than lo per 
cent of loss need be expected. Applying these results, we see that 5,000 cuttings, 
the cost of which is 735 francs, would give at the end of seven years 4,500 sponges, 
valued at 2,205 francs, and thus an average increase in value of 210 francs. In 
a regular enterprise in which 5,000 cuttings were put out every year a lump sum 
of 5,880 francs would have been expended at the end of seven years, and from 
this on a profit of i ,470 francs would be obtained annually. Marenzeller deems 
the estimate of the price of sponges exaggerated, observing that the sale of such 
planted sponges would be difficult on account of the central perforation left by 
the bamboo sticks. The valuation would be correct if each sponge weighed 25 
grams and could be sold at 20 francs per kilogram. 

In the Bulletin de la Societe d'Acclimatation (1879, p. 372) it is said that 
Schmidt and Buccich advise not to allow the cuttings to reach the current size; 
the cuttings might be allowed to develop only for three years, at the end of which 
period sponges would be gathered at a smaller size but would be sold at o.io 
franc. Four thousand sponges would cost 225 francs, including the interest of 
the capital for three years (which would be far from the valuation given above) ; 
the sale price being 400 francs (without deduction of the 10 per cent), we would 
have a profit of 1 75 francs. We must observe that the sale price of small sponges 
might fall below o.io franc if sponge culture, understood as above, became a 
current practice and flooded the market with small sponges. 

In spite of the optimism of O. Schmidt and Buccich, they were obliged to 
interrupt their work. The Dalmatian fishermen crossed themselves as in the 
presence of a miracle when they saw the cuttings growing on the devices of 
sponge culture; later on, becoming more bold, they continually disturbed the 
apparatus with their nets and more than once they even stole it. In short, these 
classical researches had to be abandoned entirely on account of lack of protection 
against the fishermen. 

"Fogarty, agent of the firm of MacKesson & Robbins, has made similar 
experiments at Key West. The localities where the sponges were placed were 
not very happily chosen and the growth of the cuttings was not as rapid at it 
might have been. The cuttings of sheepswool were about 2;^ inches thick; they 
were maintained at the bottom under about 2^^ feet of water by means of wire or 
sticks put through them. Four months were required by the sponges to com- 
plete the healing of their wounds, and they did not grow during this time. One 
cutting was placed in a creek where there was no current, or very little, and its 
growth was very slow ; the others developed very rapidly, and four months after 
they had been placed they had grown to four and six times their size. A total 



SPONGE CULTURE. 607 

of 216 specimens were planted; lack of protection against the fishermen here 
obliged Fogarty also to abandon his attempts. The result of his observations, 
however, was found sufficiently conclusive for Rathbun to demand that special 
laws be promulgated by Florida for the protection of future undertakings in 
sponge culture. , 

In 1896 there appeared a report by Allen, director of the Laboratory of Ply- 
mouth. This report was made at the request of the colonial office of Great 
Britain with the desire of introducing sponge culture in the Bahamas. We find 
in this report, in addition to accounts of the experiments of Schmidt and Buccich, 
and of Fogarty, information, though not detailed, on experiments made in Flor- 
ida by Benedict. The latter divided the sponges under water; he wanted simply 
to prove that cuttings attached to favorable localities grew rapidly. The fisher- 
men were greatly opposed to these experiments, fearing that they might be con- 
ducive to the creation of monopolies which would deprive them of their means 
of livelihood. 

In 1889-90 Ralph Monroe likewise experimented in Biscayne Bay at a point 
where the most varied conditions existed. He used for supports trunks of white 
wood, about 12 feet in length, provided with a cross-piece at one end so as to 
hinder them from rolling. The cuttings were affixed to these in various manner; 
the method most quickly executed, but far from the best, consisted in making 
use of small pieces of double -copper wire which were pushed into the wood by 
means of a special instrument. Galvanized iron can not be used in any form 
whatever, as it corrodes too rapidly ; brass wire must likewise be eliminated on 
account of the deleterious action on the sponges of the salts formed by the chem- 
ical action induced. The sponges with which Monroe operated, solely sheeps- 
wool, readily endure being in the open air for several hours, though they die very 
quickly in stagnant water. They were cut on a cutting board with a very thin 
and sharp knife, the pieces being about i inch in length. Each whole sponge 
gave an average of 25 cuttings. The cuttings were immersed to depths varying 
from 8 feet to less than i foot at a distance of 1 2 inches apart. It would be 
easy to plant, with the aid of two assistants and a good boat, from 600 to 800 cut- 
tings per day. The sponges, with a few exceptions, survived the operation and 
began to grow well. Later, they were destroyed or lost in various ways; never- 
theless a lot, planted at Elliott's Key under 4 feet of water, gave at the end of six 
months 75 per cent of living cuttings which had doubled their size. In some of 
the other lots individual sponges were brought to maturity, but the average loss 
was considerable on account of insufficient adherence to the supports, or from 
other causes. The author concludes by saying that satisfactory means of attach- 
ing the cuttings is still to be found ; the localities selected should be in bays and 
lagoons sheltered from the high sea, the too rapid currents, and too agitated 



6o8 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

water; the cuttings should be immersed at a moderate depth in order that it 
may be easy to manipulate and observe them. The growth is more rapid when 
the current is strong, but the shape is then more frequently bad and the 
skeleton hard. This point, however, is not quite elucidated by the author. 
Under favorable conditions the cuttings double their size in six months, conse- 
quently eighteen months to two years would suffice to produce a sponge of com- 
mercial size. " It is quite possible that with state protection to the planters and 
better methods to be determined upon by further experiment, sponge culture 
might be profitable." Nevertheless, the author comes finally to the conclusion, 
mentioned above, that the most rational method in his opinion is the one closest 
to oyster culture. Let us observe that the estimates of Monroe as to the time 
necessary for a sponge to attain a commercial size are based on the results of one 
single experiment which was especially lucky and extended over only six months. 

At the request of sponge merchants of Sfax, the Direction Generale des 
Travaux Publics (of Tunis) undertook researches on the biology of commercial 
sponges, and erected for this purpose a laboratory on piles in the open in the 
harbor of Sfax. This laboratory was intrusted to the supervision of Raphael 
Dubois. Allemand was appointed assistant director and made a series of experi- 
ments in sponge cultiure by cuttings, which he continued for two years and the 
results of which he published in 1906. He tells us that the sponges to be divided 
should be gathered with great care and utilized as quickly as possible after being 
taken, or they should be allowed to heal entirely in running water before cutting 
them up. He divided them with a very sharp blade previously immersed in 
boiling water for each cutting. The operation is successful when it takes place 
at a temperature of aliout 15°. If made at this temperature the healing of the 
cuttings rarely took more than three months, while in winter it is very slow, as 
is also the growth of the cuttings in this season.'' On the other hand, the vivid 
light was, as in the experiments of Schmidt, detrimental to the healing as well 
as to the development of the cuttings. It is, consequently, of great advantage 
to shelter them. 

In some ten months the cuttings grow to three times their original size. " In 
proportion to the growth observed, a fragment can form a sponge of commercial 
size (0.30 meter in circumference) only in four or five years." In short, the 
Hippospongia equina elastica developed somewhat more rapidly than the Eu- 
spongia officinalis adriatica of Schmidt. The author remarks that the apparatus 
of sponge culture must be very resistant and especially well sheltered. It is 
necessary to discontinue wooden materials, which suffered from the boring in- 

o This concurs entirely with the results obtained by Schmidt and Buccich. The healing and growth 
of the cuttings is more rapid when they are not kept at the bottom of the water. Bidder, as we have 
seen, called attention to this fact. 



SPONGE CULTURE. 609 

sects, as did those of Lesina, and select " durable bodies of clay (pyramids, cones, 
or perforated amphoras)" or reenforced cement. Allemand forgets, however, 
to tell us how these clay attachments may be sheltered from light, for all the 
experimenters will not have the advantage of suspending their apparatus under 
a laboratory, as was done in Sfax. The author advised, a few pages earlier, the 
use of baskets or boxes to preserve the sponges precisely for the purpose of 
shielding them from too strong a light. 

Allemand, agreeing on this subject with his predecessors, concludes from 
these researches that sponge culture has a real industrial and commercial value. 
But what he pubHshed, no more than what was published by the others, is of a 
nature to lead to this conviction. There is a great distance between laboratory 
experiments and the founding of an industrial enterprise. It should not be 
forgotten that the experimenters unconsciously pass very lightly over their 
failures and insist only on the encouraging facts, forgetting that industry must 
take everything in account, success as well as failure. Schmidt and Buccich 
discoimit 10 per cent of loss for undertakings in sponge culture; nevertheless, 
during the course of researches made by them during ten years they 
were unable to follow their most promising cultures for a longer period than 
five )rears; after tliis they became discouraged. In their hands, skillful by 
long practice, the final loss came near to 100 per cent. Monroe admits that 
the average loss in his researches was quite considerable. Allemand, evidently 
alluding to his own experiments, says that an undertaking in sponge culture, if 
well conducted, will suffer but a very small loss. We must, unfortunately, ask 
how he computed the mortality of his cuttings. It seems that he took into 
account only the mortality which occurred during the first weeks after the 
cutting of the sponges. We find information like the following in his table of 
experiments : 

Mortality, 7 per cent; at the end of February there remained two sponges. Mor- 
tality, 5 per cent ; at the end of February almost all the fragments were dead. Mortality, 
20 per cent; on June 29, 1906, the apparatus was entirely dislodged. 

On the whole, the mortality in the work at Sfax seems to have been quite 
considerable; it must also be remembered that the experiments were carried 
on during a maximum period of two or three years, and it is impossible for us 
to foresee what supplementary losses might have taken place during the two or 
three years that would have to elapse before the sponges could have been garnered. 
This is information which a merchant ought necessarily to have. 

With the exception of Schmidt, the sponge cultivators do not give the 
cost of their cuttings. "The cost of the installation will not be high," says 
Allemand. On the contrary, the cost would be considerable. Shall I repeat 
what I have already said about the other methods of sponge culture? The 

B. B. F. 1908—39 



6lO BULLETIN OK THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

fishing of sponges destined to be divided into cuttings must be effected with 
greatest care, thus the cost of fishing would be considerably greater than that 
of sponges destined for the. trade. The transportation, the care of the sponges, 
the division into cuttings, the purchase and manipulation of the apparatus 
of sponge culture will involve supplementary expenditures, as will also the 
installation and the concession of the pare where the plants are to be made. 
It should not be forgotten that this pare must be established in deep water as 
far as this is possible, so that the cuttings shall not be kept too close to the 
surface, where the light would be too intense for them. It is necessary to 
inclose this pare and to guard it carefully; it was the theft of apparatus and in 
general the lack of protection which forced Schmidt, Fogarty, and Benedict to 
abandon their researches, and it would have been the same with the experiments 
at Sfax if the Direction des Travaux Publics of Tunis had not provided most 
efficient guard. A private individual could not count on so vigilant an assist- 
ance as that of the fishing guards and the custodian of the laboratory of Sfax, 
and would himself have to insure, in a permanent manner, both day and night, 
the guarding of his installations. Schmidt and Buccich seem to have neg- 
lected these various factors of expense in sponge culture in the estimate of the 
cost of their cuttings. The other sponge cultivators keep silent on this subject 
as if it were a secondary one. This may be so from a scientific point of view, 
but from an industrial one it is of vital importance. 

In spite of all that has been published on this subject, it is as yet impossible 
for us to foresee at the present time what is to be gained from an undertaking 
in sponge culture. It is even to be admitted that the result of the enterprise 
would be a considerable loss. I do not mean Buccich's diminution of value 
of the sponges on account of the central perforation left by the bamboo stick; 
these are small details easily corrected by improvements in technique. We 
must notice that the time needed for healing was always considerable for the 
species with which experiments were made. This loss of time is not a negligi- 
ble quantity. Moreover, the growth of the cuttings is slow. Allemand 
says that they would have to grow four to five years to attain the size reached 
in two years by sponges coming from larvae. It is, consequently, not possible 
to see how the products of sponges, obtained at a great cost and bred at a great 
cost likewise, can compete economically with the sponges at present brought 
to market. As long as sponge banks are sufficiently supplied to permit normal 
fishing, until the value of sponge skeletons has increased considerably, it will 
be impossible to adopt any other conclusion than the one here expressed. 

Such could be the case, however, if the yearly increase in size of the cuttings 
were far in excess of the size that would have been attained by the original 
sponge had it not been divided. Schmidt thinks that this is so, without, however, 



SPONGE CULTURE. 6l I 

having verified this statement. AUemand is far more convinced, for he has 
observed that " the whole of the cuttings taken from a small sponge gave a greater 
volume than that obtained from an identical sponge placed whole at the same 
time and under the same conditions." It is rather difficult to have this state- 
ment agree with another of the same author, i. e., " the growth of a fragment or of 
a sponge derived from a fragment is much slower than that of a sponge growing 
spontaneously and not coming from a fragment." We might conclude, perhaps, 
that the sponge " placed under the same conditions," the term of the comparison, 
had not a normal subsequent development. An accident in experimentation can 
not serve as a basis for generalization. It is, moreover, to be regretted that 
the most of the authors who have given us information on the culture of sponges 
do not give any precise definition of what they mean by size and volume; it 
seems to me that what they mean by doubling or trebling the size is the diameter, 
and not the size or volume. 

Marenzeller, taking into consideration the results reported by Schmidt and 
Buccich, seemed to be skeptical as to the future of sponge cultiu-e. He finally 
raised the question whether this method of culture ought not to be applied 
only to the cutting up of flat and worthless sponges, the pieces of which would 
give sponges of rounded shape, or to the grafting together of badly shaped and 
consequently cheap sponges. Such application would be of very small impor- 
tance. The fishermen garner sponges haphazard, without taking pains to give 
the care and minute precautions demanded for the manipulation of individuals 
destined for cuttings. When the sponge brought up by the harpoon is of little 
worth it is not reasonable to expect the fisherman to lose time in manipulating 
and preser\'ing this worthless piece, which might be utilized in a more advan- 
tageous manner if he continued his fishing. Supposing that the fisherman 
followed scrupulously the directions given him, the worthless sponges thus 
gathered would cost the breeder of sponges much more than the sponges to be 
had on the market. He would then have to continue with them a series of 
procedures involving expenditures the history of which has been given here. 
And all this to bring about what results? To obtain at the end of several 
years sponges which also might be worthless, fit only to be thrown aside, like 
their parent. 

The project of fusing badly shaped sponges into one does not deserve to be 
considered. It is only a pastime for the naturalist, not a procedure for daily 
practice, and only the virtuosi of sponge culture might attempt it with some 
hope of a modest remuneration for their day's work. But we have not yet 
gone so far, and there is no dean in sponge culture. Moreover, there is nothing 
to prove that the final result of these operations would always be perfect. 
Should I judge by what I obtained from attempts of grafting halves of difi'erent 



6l2 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

individuals of Tethya lyncuriurn, ultimate disappointment may be frequently 
met, arising after premature cicatrizations. 

Buccich questioned, on the other hand, whether no senile degeneration took 
place on cuttings obtained from senile sponges ; the growth of these would be 
slower than that of a sponge of the same dimensions but developed spontane- 
ously. This last proposition was entirely confinned by facts, as we have already 
seen ; but it should not be deduced thence that the opinion of Bidder on the 
senility of sponges has been verified. It is impossible to compare experiments 
made on intact sponges with cuttings attached to apparatus. Let us observe, 
however, as an accessory consideration, that Allemand thinks to have observed 
that cuttings taken from large sponges do not develop as well as those from 
small-sized sponges; but his information on this subject is quite meager. As 
far as the senility of sponges is concerned, our knowledge, I believe, is Umited 
as yet to some measurements which Allemand made at Sfax. He noticed that 
in some fifteen months the circumference of certain sponges increased from 40 
to 45 centimeters and of others from 50 to 54 centimeters, while some increased 
from 60 to 63 centimeters, which means an increase in volume of 455 cubic cen- 
timeters in the first case, of 544 in the second, and 580 in the third. It can not 
be said that these observations constitute a definite demonstration of the fact 
that the sponges had their vitality weakened as they advanced in age. 

These are questions, moreover, the importance of which is purely theo- 
retical, since sponge culture by cuttings can not be the subject of practical 
application. The methodical study which I have given here leads us inevitably 
to the conclusion which sponge culturists themselves were obliged to accept. 
We see that Monroe says doubtfully : " It is quite possible that * * * sponge 
culture might be profitable;" yet, after all, he thinks that the most rational 
method is sponge culture by means of collectors. The last experimenter who 
took up this question could not answer against the argument arising from these 
observations. After having said that sponge culture by cuttings possesses real 
industrial value, which I expressly deny, he ends, nevertheless, by preferring to 
it a mixed method in which, unfortunately, he has no personal experience. He 
considers as being "the true method of culture in the future" a combination 
of sponge culture by cuttings and sponge culture by planting; the cuttings 
would produce larvse which would stock the pare. There would thus be every 
four or five years a harvest from the cuttings which had grown and every two 
years another from the sponges spawned in the pare. This mode of operating 
does not seem at all justified. It is difficult to understand why the author 
does not advise sponge culture by means of collectors as previously studied; 
why he insists upon utilizing, in spite of everything, the method proposed by 
Schmidt. Since the cuttings require five years to reach the size which the 
sponges reach normally in two years, it is very probable that the emission of 



SPONGE CULTURE. 613 

larv£e would be retarded or diminished in such individuals in similar proportion. 
It would then be quite illogical to use sponge cuttings even for this purpose. 
What opinion should we have of a horse breeder who would use only sick, 
crippled, or deformed stallions with which to increase his stock? 

From whatever standpoint it be considered, sponge culture by cuttings 
seems to us only a scientific amusement which can not have any practical 
application. 

CONCLUSION. 

We see from the preceding that experiments in sponge culture so far made 
forbid all hope of ever seeing in current practice methods like the above, and 
command us most imperiously to warn those desiring to undertake this industry 
against imprudent advice which they might receive on this subject. There 
remain, however, other methods which have not been attempted or which were 
not tried seriously enough and on which our opinion must remain provisionally 
pending. Let us wait before expressing it definitely; let us await carefully 
conducted experiments to enlighten us. It would be unfortunate for the fame 
of applied natural science if industrial attempts at sponge culture, after having 
been lauded by naturalists, brought about failure from a financial point of view 
or ended in insignificant results, as when the mountain gave birth to a mouse. 

Thorough consideration ought to be given to the matter before engaging 
capital in an enterprise that might be dangerous. Since the gradual exhaustion 
of the banks threatens all sponge-bearing countries, however, those interested 
in this question should be reminded that more importatit and more easily solved 
problems urgently claim their attention. There should be as uniform legis- 
lation as possible, promulgated after international agreement, regulating in 
various cotmtries (i) the period for sponge fishing, so as to allow the swarming 
of the mature larvte; (2) the minimum size of individual sponges fished and 
offered for sale; (3) the fishing apparatus, either in regard to character or 
number; and (4) the security of banks situated in neutral waters. 

This is the first programme to be considered. When this is done, let us 
hope that precise researches during the interval shall have carried the question of 
sponge culture a few steps further, and that we shall have then a new basis for 
appreciation in thorough knowledge. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
Allemand, M. a. 

Etude de physiologie appliqu^e a la spongiculture sur les cotes de Tunisie. Comptes rendus 
du Congres A. T. A. S. Lyon, igo6. Also, Thfese de la Faculte des Sciences de Lyon, 1906. 
Allen, E. J. 

Report on the sponge fishery of Florida and the artificial culture of sponges. Journal Marine 
Biological Association, n. s., vol. iv, 1896. Supplement, ibid. 
Aristotle. 

Livre v, chap, xiv, traduction de Barthelemy St. Hilaire, t. 11, Paris. 



>; 

^ 



614 BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

Bidder, G. 

Note on projects for the improvement of sponge fisheries. Journal Marine Biological Association, 
n. s., vol. IV, 1896. 
Bouchon-Brandely et Berthoule, A. 

Les peches maritimes en Alg^rie et en Tunisie. Revue maritime et coloniale, 1890. 
BricE, J. J. 

The fish and fisheries of the coastal waters of Florida. Report U. S. Commission Fish and Fish- 
eries, 1896 (1898). 
Cavolini, F. 

Memorie per servire alia storia dei polipi marini. Napoli, 1785. (Cited by Marenzeller.) 
CoTTE, Jules 

La peche des Sponges en Provence. Comptes rendus du Congres des Societ^s savantes de la 

Provence. Marseille, 1906. 
La spongiculture peut-elle devenir ime industrie? Bulletin historique, professional et technique 

des Peches maritimes, xii? ann^e, 1907. 
La spongiculture. Revue scientifique, ser. 5, t. vni, 1907. 
Darbou.x, G., Stephan, P., Cotte, J., Van Gayer. 

L'industrie des peches aux colonies. Marseille, 1908. 
DelagE, J. 

L'^tat actuel de la biologic des Sponges. Revue g^nerale des Sciences purees et appliquees, 
t. IX, 1898. 
HenniquE, P. A. 

Caboteurs et p&cheurs de la cote de Tunisie en 1882. Paris, 1884. 
Hyatt, A. 

Revision of the North American Porifera. 1877. 
Lamiral, E. 

Sur I'acclimatation des Sponges dans les eaux de la France et de I'Alg^rie. Bulletin de la Soci^t6 

d'Acclimatation, t. vni, 1861, p. 237-234. 
Rapport sur un essai d'acclimatation des eponges de Syrie dans les eaux francaises de la Medi- 
terran^e. Ibid., t. i.x, 1862, p. 641-53. Second rapport, ibid., t. x, 1863, p. S-15. 
Lendenfeld, R. von 

A monograph of the horny sponges. London, 1889. 
LOUBEIRAN, L. 

Rapport sur le m^moire de M. Larairal. Bulletin de la Societe d'Acclimatation, t. vni, 1861, 
p. 433-37- 
Marenzeller, E. von 

Die Aufzucht des Badeschwammes aus Theilstiicken. Verhandlungen der K. K. Zoologisch- 
botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien, bd. xxviii, 1878. 
Masse, P. R, 

La p&che des Sponges et leur commerce. Bulletin Ch. Comm. Fr. Constantinople, t. vi, 1892. 
Navigation et des PSches Maritimes, Notice sur le service de la. Tunis, 1900. 
Rathbun, R. 

The sponge fishery and trade. The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the United States, sec. v, 
vol. II, 1887, U. S. Fish Commission, Washington, D. C. 
Schmidt, O. 

Die Spongien des Adriatischen Meeres. Leipzig, 1862. And Supplement. 
Servonnet et Lafpitte. 

Le Golfe de Gkbes en 1888. Paris. 
Tanner, Z. L. 

Report on the work of the U. S. Fish Commission steamer Albatross. Report U. S. Commissioner 
of Fish and Fisheries, 1S86 (1889). 
Vaillant, L. 

Note sur la vitajite d'une Sponge de la famille des Corticatae, la Tethya lyncurium. Comptes 
rendus de 1' Academic des Sciences, t. Lxviii, 1869. 




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